Proclus Lycaeus, the Successor

Proclus Lycaeus (born 410 CE, died 485 CE), who is surnamed “The Successor”, stands as one of the greatest and most prolific Neoplatonic philosophers, and is also among the last. He lived in a time of momentous transformation within the Roman empire. Christianity had displaced the old religions of Greece and Roman and the last pagan Roman Emperor, Julianus, had died some forty-seven years before his birth. We now know him as the principal force behind the late school of philosophic thought which was developed in Athens during the 5th century, and which lasted until the year 529, when, by edict of Emperor Justinian, great Academy and other philosophical schools were forever closed.

Proclus was educated in Alexandria of Egypt, where he studied rhetoric, philosophy, and mathematics. He return to Constantinople to practice law, but later decided that he preferred pure philosophy over his chosen profession. He continued his studies of philosophy in the Academy at Athens, under Syrianus and Plutarch of Athens (no relation to the more famous 1st century Plutarch of Chaeronea), and succeed Plutarch as head of the Academy.

In his life time, Proclus attempted to systematize and synthesize the various elements of Neoplatonism into a cohesive whole. His system rests on the foundation which had already been laid down Iamblichus and others. He authored several commentaries on Plato (Alcibiades, Cratylus, Charmenides, Republic, and Timaeus), wrote a collection of hymns to the gods, and several philosophical treatises, the most important of which are: Metaphysical Elements and Platonic Theology, a short treatises on Fate, one on Evil, and one on Providence, which exist only in a Latin translation made in the thirteenth century. He also wrote an influential commentary on the first book of Euclid’s Elements of Geometry, which is one of the most valuable sources we have for the history of ancient mathematics.

Proclus also had a great devotion to the goddess Athena, whom he believed guided him at key moments in his life. Marinus reports that when Christians removed the statue of Athena from the Parthenon, a beautiful woman appeared to Proclus in a dream and announced that the “Athenian Lady” wished to stay at his home.

Iamblichus of Chalcis

Iamblichus of Chalcis (born 245 CE, died between 325-330 CE) was a Syrian philosopher, like his teacher and master, Porphyry of Tyre. While Porphyry gave us the teachings of Plotinus, Iamblichus solidified the foundation of Neoplatonism and brought Platonic philosophy into harmony with pagan theology. Emperor Julianus, who reigned some 30 years after the death of Iamblichus, would adopt Iamblchian religious-philosophy with the hope of it becoming the “new religion” of the Empire, displacing Christianity. But the dream of Julianus, and the Iamblichean religion itself, would die with the death of the emperor in 363.

In the year 304 CE, Iamblichus founded his own philosophical school in Syria near Antioch, and laid down a curriculum for studying Plato and Aristotle. Above and beyond these two great philosophers, however, Iamblichus considered Pythagoras the supreme authority. In many ways, he is just as much a Neoplatonist as he is a Neopythagorean philosopher, and it is in Iamblichus that Neoplatonic and Neopythagorean philosophy.

Iamblichus is known to have been a prolific writer, however, the majority of his works comes down to us only in fragments. Of his complete works, we have The Life of Pythagoras, which give the most detailed Pythagorean biography; The Mysteries of Egypt, which presents our most complete sample of Iamblichean philosophy and theology; On the Soul, fragments on Iamblichus’ theology of the nature of the soul; and The Theology of Mathematics, a short work on the divine nature of numbers which some scholars attribute to a student of Iamblichus, and not Iamblichus himself.

Iamblichus, however, is best known for his development of the divine “magical” system known as Theurgy, or “God Working”. Iamblichus believed that the only way to salvation (that is, to free the soul from the cycle of reincarnation and escape from the physical cosmos) was through the exercising of religious ceremonies and rituals designed to bring one’s self into contact with divine entities (gods and spirits). This is where Iamblichus differed from Porphyry, who believed mental contemplation alone could bring salvation. According to Iamblichus, the theurgist would begin at the material level, with physical symbols and “magic”, while at the higher level would develop purely mental and spiritual practices. Eventually, the theurgist would reach a level o

Apollonian Texts and Literature

Above all, Apollonianism encourages the study of modern empirical sciences, including chemistry, physics, biology, and other natural sciences, but most especially astronomy and cosmology, for these seek answers to our most fundamental questions of the Cosmos. Anyone wishing to put to practice Apollonian ideals needs only to open a book on science and endeavor to learn.

However, we also recognize that science alone does not provide a sufficient intellectual framework through which we can achieve a complete understanding of ourselves and our relationship with the universe. For this reason, Apollonians study various philosophical spiritual system of ancient times, including the works of Plato and Aristotle, and the philosophies which came after them, for these do not stand contrary to science.

Porphyry of Tyre

Porphyry of Tyre (born 233 CE, died 309 CE) to Syrian parents. In Athens he studied grammar and rhetoric under Cassius Longinus, and in 262 went to Rome to study under Plotinus, becoming his chief student. Some time after Plotinus died in 270 CE, Porphyry collected the writings of his teacher and completed his most important work, the Enneads of Plotinus, which formed the foundation of Neoplatonism.

Porphyry also lectured in Rome, and Iamblichus is considered to be his chief student and successor. However, Porphyry and Iamblichus had deep theological differences, primarily centered around the subject of theurgy — mystical rituals used to commune with the gods and the divine. While Porphyry was staunchly opposed to the idea of theurgy, Iamblichus embraced the concept and wrote extensively on the subject.

Apart from the Enneads (which Porphyry did not write, but rather edited), Porphyry himself wrote several important and influential works. Foremost are his Life of Plotinus and Life of Pythagoras, which are detailed biographic essays on these two great philosophers. Like other Neoplatonists, he also wrote a book Against the Christians, of which only fragments now remain, and in which he details numerous logical, scientific, and historical errors in Christian theology. Likewise, his work The Cave of the Nymphs is an elaborate interpretation and defense of pagan mythology. He also wrote a remarkable work on vegetarianism, On Abstinence From Animal Food, which argues against the need to kill animals for food and provides detailed information on living a vegetarian lifestyle that is still cited to this day. Additional works written by Porphyry include Introduction to Aristotle’s Categories which incorporated Aristotle’s logic into Neoplatonism; Philosophy from Oracles, a defense of the traditional Greek religion; Sentences, which are 44 sentences covering a number of major metaphysical questions; and Aids to the Study of the Intelligibles, a basic summary of Neoplatonism.

Master Plotinus

The eminent philosopher Plotinus, who lived and taught during the third century of the Common Era, has long been hailed as the “Father of Neoplatonism”. While essentially correct by our present definition, it is first necessary to established what is meant when we say “Neoplatonism”.

Plotinus was not himself a Neoplatonist. He would have simply termed himself a “follower of Plato”, and thus, was a Platonist. The term “Neoplatonism” did not come unto use until the 18th century, and was first used by Platonic scholar, Thomas Taylor, to describe the resurgence of Platonic thought in the 3rd and 4th centuries. However, the division between Classic Platonism, Middle Platonism, and Neoplatonism, is at best arbitrary. Aristotelianism. Stoicism, Epicureanism, Academicism, Gnosticism, and Hermeticism, are all based on interpretations of Platonic thought. In fact, every student of Plato’s philosophy since Plato himself is, in a sense, a “new Platonist”.

Nevertheless, we shall embrace the usage of the term “Neoplatonism” as scholars commonly apply it today — that is to say, the philosophy of Plotinus and its further development by his successors.

What is Neoplatonism?

The term “Neoplatonism” was coined in the early 19th century to describe the school of philosophy which arose in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, which greatly expounded upon the philosophy of Plato. The original “Neoplatonists”, of course, merely considered themselves to be followers of Plato and his school (or were “Academics”, that is, “of Plato’s Academy”).

But, semantics aside, Neoplatonism is, simply put, a philosophical and theological system combining ideas from Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics, along with traditional Hellenic religious beliefs. The Greek philosopher Plotinus is generally credited a founder of Neoplatonism, but Plotinus’ teacher, Ammonius Saccas, is also often consider the Father of Neoplatonism. Although we know very little about Ammonius Saccas, but, as Plotinus teacher, it is clear he had a profound influence on the founder of Neoplatonism. According to Porphyry, Ammonius’ parents were Christian, but upon learning Greek philosophy, he rejected Christianity for Platonism and Greek polytheism. Also of note is the philosopher Numenius, who was a Neo-Pythagorian and also influenced the development of Neoplatonism. According to Proclus (Commentary on Timaeus, 93), Numenius believed in a trinity of gods: the “father” (Nous), “The Maker” (the Demiurge), and “that which is made” (the Cosmos).