Old Ideas and New Paradigms

Do the philosophies valued by Apollonians conflict with modern science? Many of the essential tenets of Platonic and Neoplatonic philosophy do stand in contrast to the modern findings of science. For example, the ancient Neoplatonists believed the Cosmos was uncreated and will not be destroyed (although they believed the Cosmos originated from a singularity, called the One or Monad, this singularity itself was not created).

Until the middle of the 20th century, most scientists also believed the universe had no beginning and would have no end–this was a theory called the “Steady State Model”. However, with the discovery that the universe was expanding astronomers and cosmologists developed the “Big Bang” theory. But even this is not in conflict with Neoplatonic cosmology. In both cases the Singularity, or Platonic Monad, pre-existed before the cosmos, outside of time and space, and upon coming into being resulted in the physical universe we observe.

Modern science also dictates that the universe will not end, but continue to expand forever–although all matter will eventually decay into heat spread over a vast infinity, essentially leaving the universe empty. The Neoplatonists did not believe this would occur, but of course, they lacked sufficient information. Had they possessed the same information we have, their conclusion would have been similar to our modern conclusions. Therefore, modern Neoplatonic philosophers, as well as Apollonian philosophers, should incorporate modern scientific views as superior to antiquated concept, as part of the natural evolution of philosophy itself.

Proclus Lycaeus, the Successor

Proclus Lycaeus (born 410 CE, died 485 CE), who is surnamed “The Successor”, stands as one of the greatest and most prolific Neoplatonic philosophers, and is also among the last. He lived in a time of momentous transformation within the Roman empire. Christianity had displaced the old religions of Greece and Roman and the last pagan Roman Emperor, Julianus, had died some forty-seven years before his birth. We now know him as the principal force behind the late school of philosophic thought which was developed in Athens during the 5th century, and which lasted until the year 529, when, by edict of Emperor Justinian, great Academy and other philosophical schools were forever closed.

Proclus was educated in Alexandria of Egypt, where he studied rhetoric, philosophy, and mathematics. He return to Constantinople to practice law, but later decided that he preferred pure philosophy over his chosen profession. He continued his studies of philosophy in the Academy at Athens, under Syrianus and Plutarch of Athens (no relation to the more famous 1st century Plutarch of Chaeronea), and succeed Plutarch as head of the Academy.

In his life time, Proclus attempted to systematize and synthesize the various elements of Neoplatonism into a cohesive whole. His system rests on the foundation which had already been laid down Iamblichus and others. He authored several commentaries on Plato (Alcibiades, Cratylus, Charmenides, Republic, and Timaeus), wrote a collection of hymns to the gods, and several philosophical treatises, the most important of which are: Metaphysical Elements and Platonic Theology, a short treatises on Fate, one on Evil, and one on Providence, which exist only in a Latin translation made in the thirteenth century. He also wrote an influential commentary on the first book of Euclid’s Elements of Geometry, which is one of the most valuable sources we have for the history of ancient mathematics.

Proclus also had a great devotion to the goddess Athena, whom he believed guided him at key moments in his life. Marinus reports that when Christians removed the statue of Athena from the Parthenon, a beautiful woman appeared to Proclus in a dream and announced that the “Athenian Lady” wished to stay at his home.

Iamblichus of Chalcis

Iamblichus of Chalcis (born 245 CE, died between 325-330 CE) was a Syrian philosopher, like his teacher and master, Porphyry of Tyre. While Porphyry gave us the teachings of Plotinus, Iamblichus solidified the foundation of Neoplatonism and brought Platonic philosophy into harmony with pagan theology. Emperor Julianus, who reigned some 30 years after the death of Iamblichus, would adopt Iamblchian religious-philosophy with the hope of it becoming the “new religion” of the Empire, displacing Christianity. But the dream of Julianus, and the Iamblichean religion itself, would die with the death of the emperor in 363.

In the year 304 CE, Iamblichus founded his own philosophical school in Syria near Antioch, and laid down a curriculum for studying Plato and Aristotle. Above and beyond these two great philosophers, however, Iamblichus considered Pythagoras the supreme authority. In many ways, he is just as much a Neoplatonist as he is a Neopythagorean philosopher, and it is in Iamblichus that Neoplatonic and Neopythagorean philosophy.

Iamblichus is known to have been a prolific writer, however, the majority of his works comes down to us only in fragments. Of his complete works, we have The Life of Pythagoras, which give the most detailed Pythagorean biography; The Mysteries of Egypt, which presents our most complete sample of Iamblichean philosophy and theology; On the Soul, fragments on Iamblichus’ theology of the nature of the soul; and The Theology of Mathematics, a short work on the divine nature of numbers which some scholars attribute to a student of Iamblichus, and not Iamblichus himself.

Iamblichus, however, is best known for his development of the divine “magical” system known as Theurgy, or “God Working”. Iamblichus believed that the only way to salvation (that is, to free the soul from the cycle of reincarnation and escape from the physical cosmos) was through the exercising of religious ceremonies and rituals designed to bring one’s self into contact with divine entities (gods and spirits). This is where Iamblichus differed from Porphyry, who believed mental contemplation alone could bring salvation. According to Iamblichus, the theurgist would begin at the material level, with physical symbols and “magic”, while at the higher level would develop purely mental and spiritual practices. Eventually, the theurgist would reach a level o

Apollonian Texts and Literature

Above all, Apollonianism encourages the study of modern empirical sciences, including chemistry, physics, biology, and other natural sciences, but most especially astronomy and cosmology, for these seek answers to our most fundamental questions of the Cosmos. Anyone wishing to put to practice Apollonian ideals needs only to open a book on science and endeavor to learn.

However, we also recognize that science alone does not provide a sufficient intellectual framework through which we can achieve a complete understanding of ourselves and our relationship with the universe. For this reason, Apollonians study various philosophical spiritual system of ancient times, including the works of Plato and Aristotle, and the philosophies which came after them, for these do not stand contrary to science.

Porphyry of Tyre

Porphyry of Tyre (born 233 CE, died 309 CE) to Syrian parents. In Athens he studied grammar and rhetoric under Cassius Longinus, and in 262 went to Rome to study under Plotinus, becoming his chief student. Some time after Plotinus died in 270 CE, Porphyry collected the writings of his teacher and completed his most important work, the Enneads of Plotinus, which formed the foundation of Neoplatonism.

Porphyry also lectured in Rome, and Iamblichus is considered to be his chief student and successor. However, Porphyry and Iamblichus had deep theological differences, primarily centered around the subject of theurgy — mystical rituals used to commune with the gods and the divine. While Porphyry was staunchly opposed to the idea of theurgy, Iamblichus embraced the concept and wrote extensively on the subject.

Apart from the Enneads (which Porphyry did not write, but rather edited), Porphyry himself wrote several important and influential works. Foremost are his Life of Plotinus and Life of Pythagoras, which are detailed biographic essays on these two great philosophers. Like other Neoplatonists, he also wrote a book Against the Christians, of which only fragments now remain, and in which he details numerous logical, scientific, and historical errors in Christian theology. Likewise, his work The Cave of the Nymphs is an elaborate interpretation and defense of pagan mythology. He also wrote a remarkable work on vegetarianism, On Abstinence From Animal Food, which argues against the need to kill animals for food and provides detailed information on living a vegetarian lifestyle that is still cited to this day. Additional works written by Porphyry include Introduction to Aristotle’s Categories which incorporated Aristotle’s logic into Neoplatonism; Philosophy from Oracles, a defense of the traditional Greek religion; Sentences, which are 44 sentences covering a number of major metaphysical questions; and Aids to the Study of the Intelligibles, a basic summary of Neoplatonism.

Master Plotinus

The eminent philosopher Plotinus, who lived and taught during the third century of the Common Era, has long been hailed as the “Father of Neoplatonism”. While essentially correct by our present definition, it is first necessary to established what is meant when we say “Neoplatonism”.

Plotinus was not himself a Neoplatonist. He would have simply termed himself a “follower of Plato”, and thus, was a Platonist. The term “Neoplatonism” did not come unto use until the 18th century, and was first used by Platonic scholar, Thomas Taylor, to describe the resurgence of Platonic thought in the 3rd and 4th centuries. However, the division between Classic Platonism, Middle Platonism, and Neoplatonism, is at best arbitrary. Aristotelianism. Stoicism, Epicureanism, Academicism, Gnosticism, and Hermeticism, are all based on interpretations of Platonic thought. In fact, every student of Plato’s philosophy since Plato himself is, in a sense, a “new Platonist”.

Nevertheless, we shall embrace the usage of the term “Neoplatonism” as scholars commonly apply it today — that is to say, the philosophy of Plotinus and its further development by his successors.

Master Plato

The monumental influence of the great philosopher Plato reverberates through twenty-four hundred years of record history, and his wisdom, ethics, and allegories still hold tremendous power to this day. His most famous works include The Republic, his central dialogue on politics, ethics, and metaphysics, The Symposium, which illustrates the concept of Platonic love, Timaeus, which describes the creation of the universe, and Critias, which introduced the world to the story of Atlantis. Virtually every Western philosopher since Plato has drawn upon his teachings. Alfred North Whitehead put it best when he remarked that “Western Philosophy is only a series of footnotes to Plato.”

However, like Plato’s own concept of Forms, his philosophy did not materialize from a vacuum. The teachings of Socrates largely shaped the Plato’s views, and Plato himself drew heavily from Pythagoras, as well as from Anaxagoras and Parmenides who taught on cosmology, the nature of the soul, and unity of all things. However, Plato’s most famous student, Aristotle, either abandoned or rejected many of Plato’s concepts (including the concept of Forms), focusing more on logical deduction, empirical observation, and methodical testing — predecessors of the modern scientific method. Ironically, many of Aristotle’s objections to Plato’s arguments do not stand up to rigorous scrutiny. Though Aristotle held greater sway in the Middle Ages than Plato, today quite the reverse is true.

Apollonius of Tyana

Apollonius of Tyana is the foremost figure in the development of late Hellenistic theology, the man who some have called the “the lost Christ of the Pagan World”. Most of what is known of this first century philosopher comes from Lucius Flavius Philostratus’ Life of Apollonius of Tyana, which was based on the written account of Apollonius’ close disciple, Damis of Ninos, who accompanied him on his travels across the known world. Though the exact date of Apollonius’s birth and death are not known, he appears to have been born between 2 BCE and 2 CE, and most likely died in 98 CE, around the age of one hundred, a few year after the death of Emperor Domitian.

Apollonius was said by many to be a reincarnation of Pythagoras, and indeed the life of Apollonius in many respects parallels the life of the Grandfather of Philosophy himself. He was born in the city of Tyana, in Cappadocia (Asia Minor), and was either given, or later took, the name Apollonius. According to Philostratus, Apollonius displayed a keen mind and excellent memory at an early age, and was sent to complete his schooling in Tarsus. At the temple of Asclepius he devoted himself to the study of philosophy, and took a particular interest in the philosophy of Pythagoras. He assumed the life of a Pythagorean ascetic, dressing in simply linen robes, adopting a vegetarian diet, abstaining from wine, and devoted his life to reforming the pagan cults of the Hellenistic world in order to return them to the glory and purity of ancient tradition.

The Four Virtues

Plato advocated that only virtue is purely good, that goodness is essential to well-being, that evil should not be returned for evil, that most men commit wrongness out of ignorance, and that evil is wrongness committed on purpose.

To that end, Plato defined the Four Virtues as being Temperance, Prudence, Courage, and Justice. It is these four virtues that make up the core of ethics and is the key to living an excellent and rewarding life.

What is Neoplatonism?

The term “Neoplatonism” was coined in the early 19th century to describe the school of philosophy which arose in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, which greatly expounded upon the philosophy of Plato. The original “Neoplatonists”, of course, merely considered themselves to be followers of Plato and his school (or were “Academics”, that is, “of Plato’s Academy”).

But, semantics aside, Neoplatonism is, simply put, a philosophical and theological system combining ideas from Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics, along with traditional Hellenic religious beliefs. The Greek philosopher Plotinus is generally credited a founder of Neoplatonism, but Plotinus’ teacher, Ammonius Saccas, is also often consider the Father of Neoplatonism. Although we know very little about Ammonius Saccas, but, as Plotinus teacher, it is clear he had a profound influence on the founder of Neoplatonism. According to Porphyry, Ammonius’ parents were Christian, but upon learning Greek philosophy, he rejected Christianity for Platonism and Greek polytheism. Also of note is the philosopher Numenius, who was a Neo-Pythagorian and also influenced the development of Neoplatonism. According to Proclus (Commentary on Timaeus, 93), Numenius believed in a trinity of gods: the “father” (Nous), “The Maker” (the Demiurge), and “that which is made” (the Cosmos).